CHRISTIANITY CHRONOLOGYPaul Smith27 BC – AD 14 Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus), first Roman Emperor. “This is he, Augustus Caesar, son of a god who shall restore the Golden Age and spread his Empire”. – Virgil, The Aeneid. 4 BC Judas of Galilee, having “an ambitious desire of the royal dignity”, became the head of a band of rebels following the death of King Herod, seizing control of the armoury in his palace at Sepphoris (Flavius Josephus [born Joseph ben Matthias; c37-c100], Antiquities of the Jews, Bk 17:271-272). AD 6 Augustus ordered the incorporation of Judea into the Roman Empire, implementing a census of its population for the purposes of taxation – resulting in the origin of the Zealots, a Jewish resistance movement led by Judas of Galilee seeking total national independence, many members of which became crucified. Direct Roman rule was administered by Roman Prefects based at Caesarea, who on special occasions such as the chief feasts could visit Jerusalem residing in the palace that had belonged to Herod, henceforth called the ‘praetorium’. According to Luke ii.1 this was the year of birth of a historical Jesus Christ. 14 – 37 Tiberius (Claudius Nero Tiberius), Roman Emperor. “He (Tiberius) abolished foreign cults at Rome, particularly the Egyptian and Jewish, forcing all citizens who had embraced these superstitious faiths to burn their religious vestments and other accessories. Jews of military age were removed to unhealthy regions, on the pretext of drafting them into the army; the others of the same race or of similar beliefs were expelled from the city and threatened with slavery if they defied the order”. – Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Tiberius, xxxvi. 26 – 36 Pontius Pilate, fifth Roman Prefect of Judaea. “(Pontius Pilate)…a man of a very inflexible disposition, and very merciless as well as very obstinate”. – Philo of Alexandria (c20BC-50AD), On The Embassy To Gaius, xxxviii. 37 – 41 Gaius, nicknamed “Caligula” (Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus), Roman Emperor. * Ordered Petronius, lieutenant and Governor of Syria, to place a statue of himself in the Temple of Jerusalem (Philo of Alexandria, On The Embassy To Gaius, xxxi). 41 – 54 Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus), Roman Emperor. “Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome…” – Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars; Claudius, xxv.4. 44 – c46 Cuspius Fadus, first Roman Procurator of Judaea. c46 – 48 Tiberius Iulius Alexander, second Roman Procurator of Judaea – ordered the execution of James and Simon, the sons of Judas of Galilee, by crucifixion (Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Bk 20:102). c50 – c60 Epistles of Paul, earliest Christian writings (Romans; Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians; Philippians; Colossians; Thessalonians): Jesus Christ being a Crucified Saviour God serving as an atoning sacrifice, later resurrected – intrinsic with Baptism (Romans vi: 3-4). Internal evidence indicates that this author must have been a Christian before 40, for he tells that King Aretas of the Nabateans, who is known to have died that year, had at one time sought to have him arrested for his Christian activities (2 Cor. xi:32). Paul, a one-time persecutor of the Christians under the name of Saul, a Pharisee “advancing in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and was extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers” (Galatians i:14), had converted to Christianity following a supernatural vision of Jesus Christ whilst on the road to Damascus. In early Christianity there was no central organisation to secure and enforce uniformity of belief. 54 – 68 Nero (Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus), Roman Emperor. “Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and wicked superstition”. – Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars; Nero, xvi.2. c64 Persecution of the Christians in Rome under Nero (Tacitus, Annals, xv.44). 64 – 66 Gessius Florus, seventh Roman Procurator of Judaea – Zealots captured the fortress of Masada led by Menahem, the son of Judas of Galilee, who was slain shortly afterwards in Jerusalem by Jewish rivals with his captain, Apsalom (Flavius Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Bk 2:408,433-448). 66 – 70 First Jewish Revolt against Rome – with the Temple of Jerusalem destroyed and its treasures taken to Rome by Titus. “But now, what did most elevate them (the Jews) in undertaking this war (AD66-70), was an ambiguous oracle that was also found in their sacred writings, how ‘about that time one from their country should become governor of the habitable earth’. The Jews took this prediction to belong to themselves in particular: and many of the wise men were thereby deceived in their determination” – Flavius Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Bk 6:312-313. 68 – 69 Galba, Roman Emperor. 69 Otho, Roman Emperor. 69 Aulus Vitellius, Roman Emperor. 69 – 79 Vespasian (Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus), Roman Emperor. 72 The Roman governor Flavius Silva, with his Tenth Legion marched against Masada, the last remaining Zealot garrison on the shores of the Dead Sea, preparing for a long siege. 74 Fall of Masada, with the 960 men, women and children preferring suicide to surrender. Three survivors recounted the final speech made by the garrison’s commander, Eleazar ben Jair, the descendant of Judas of Galilee (Menahem’s nephew): “…we were the very first that revolted from the Romans, and we are the last that fight against them…Ever since primitive man began to think, the words of our ancestors and of the gods, supported by the actions and spirit of our forefathers, have constantly impressed us that life is the calamity for man, not death. Death gives freedom to our souls and lets them depart to their own pure home where they will know nothing of any calamity; but while they are confined within a mortal body and share its miseries, in strict truth they are dead. For association of the divine with the mortal is most improper. Certainly the soul can do a great deal even when imprisoned in the body: it makes the body its own organ of sense, moving it invisibly and impelling it in its actions further than mortal nature can reach. But when, freed from the weight that drags it down to earth and is hung about it, the soul returns to its own place, then in truth it partakes of a blessed power and an utterly unfettered strength, remaining as invisible to human eyes as God Himself. Not even while it is in the body can it be viewed; it enters undetected and departs unseen, having itself one imperishable nature, but causing a change in the body, for whatever the soul touches lives and blossoms, whatever it deserts withers and dies: such a superabundance it has of immortality…They are men of true courage who, regarding this life as a kind of service we must render to nature, undergo it with reluctance and hasten to release their souls from their bodies; and though no misfortune presses or drives them away, desire for immortal life impels them to inform their friends that they are going to depart” – Flavius Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Bk 7:324, 341-388. “But the single nation of the Jews…accustomed to embrace voluntary death as an entrance to immortality…” – Philo of Alexandria, On The Embassy To Gaius, xvi. 75 – 80 Vespasian and Titus build the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) in front of Nero’s ‘Golden Palace’, Rome, as a place of Gladiatoral combat. 79 – 81 Titus (Titus Vespasianus Augustus), Roman Emperor. c80 Chronicle of Justus of Tiberias – no longer extant, but Photius, Christian patriarch of Constantinople, wrote in the 9th-century: “This Jewish historian does not make the smallest mention of the appearance of Christ, and says nothing whatever of his deeds and miracles” (Cod.lib.xxxiii). 81 – 96 Domitian (Titus Flavius Domitianus), Roman Emperor. c83 – 84 Obsolescence of Oracles by Plutarch (c45-c126), referring to the Death of Pan during the reign of Tiberius (xvii). c92 Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews – the authenticity of the passages relating to Jesus Christ (Bks 18:63-64 and 20:200) and to John the Baptist (Bk 18:116-119) are in question, since none of the earliest Christians who consulted the work referred to them (Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, etc). Earliest MS dates from the 11th-century. c96 Epistle of “Clement” – recognition of ruling classes and heads of community within Christianity. 96 – 98 Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva), Roman Emperor. 98 – 117 Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus), Roman Emperor. c110 Epistle of Barnabas – of Jesus Christ he wrote “…and doing many wonders and signs…he preached…he chose his apostles…” c110 Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch – first Christian reference to Pontius Pilate; the Virgin Birth; the Star; the baptism by John. Biographical details were advanced to refute Docetism, which believed that Jesus existed as a Man in form only, not a substance (imposing a perpetual illusion on the senses of his friends and enemies). Possibly aware of the Gospel of the Hebrews. 112 The first pagan reference to Christianity. “It is their habit, on a fixed day, to assemble before daylight and to recite by turns a form of words to Christ as God (Christo quasi deo); and that they bound themselves with an oath, not for any crime, but not to commit theft or robbery or adultery, not to break their word, and not to deny a deposit when demanded. After this was done, their custom was to depart, and to meet again to take food, but ordinary and harmless food; and even this (they said) they had given up doing after the issue of my edict, by which in accordance with your commands I had forbidden the existence of clubs. On this I considered it the more necessary to find out from two maid-servants who were called deaconesses, and that by torments, how far this was true: but I discovered nothing else than a perverse and extravagant superstition. I therefore adjourned the case and hastened to consult you. The matter seemed to me worth deliberation, especially on account of the number of those in danger; for many of all ages and every rank, and also of both sexes are brought into present or future danger. The contagion of this perverse and extravagant superstition has penetrated not the cities only, but the villages and the country. Yet it seems possible to stop it and set it right”. – Epistola x. 96. Pliny the Younger’s report to the Emperor Trajan, who tried to establish whether or not Christians practised cannibalism. 117 – 138 Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), Roman Emperor. c117 – 138 Basilides the Gnostic – author of Exegetica (24 Books, no longer extant), who claimed to have been taught by Glaukias, an “interpreter” of the apostle Peter (Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria). c120 Earliest references to Jesus Christ in Rabbinical literature. c120 Annals of Imperial Rome by Publius Cornelius Tacitus (c55-c120) – first pagan reference to the execution of Christ under Pontius Pilate (xv.44), within the context of Nero being accused of burning Rome: “But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a deadly superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but also in the City, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world meet and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who confessed; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of arson, as of hatred of the human race (odium humani generis). Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames. These served to illuminate the night when daylight failed. Nero had thrown open his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or drove about in a chariot. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man’s cruelty, that they were being destroyed”. Earliest MS dates from the 12th-century. Tacitus also authored The Histories – the part dealing with the siege of Jerusalem (AD 70) has perished, although he did affirm that there was no disturbance in Palestine under Tiberius (AD14-37), whereas the preceding and following reigns were characterised by rebellion and unrest there (The Histories v.9). c125 – 150 Rylands Fragment P52 – earliest extant New Testament papyrus (cf. John xviii:31-34; 37-38). Discovered in 1920. 132 – 135 Second Jewish Revolt against Rome, led by Simon Bar Cochba (Simeon bar Kosiba, “Simon son of the star”) – held Jerusalem for a time, claiming to be the Messiah descended from King David, supported by Rabbi Akiba. “At Jerusalem he (Hadrian) founded a city in place of the one which he had razed to the ground, naming it Aelia Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of the god he raised a new temple to Jupiter. This brought on a war of no slight importance nor of brief duration, for the Jews deemed it intolerable that foreign races should be settled in their city and foreign religious rites planted there”. – Roman History of Dio Cassius (c160-post 229); Epitome of Book lxix, made by Xiphilinus during the 11th century. c135 Epistle of Polycarp – first to recognise the Sermon on the Mount; I John; the “Pastoral Epistles” (ie, I & II Timothy and Titus). 138 – 161 Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor. c140 Exegesis of the Lord’s Oracles (5 Books) by Papias of Hierapolis – mentioning that Matthew and Mark had collected the sayings of Jesus; recognised I John; I Peter (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History Bk 3 ch 39). The original work is no longer extant. c140 Apology for Christianity by Aristides, an Athenian philosopher, addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius – contained a reference to a possible written Gospel, with many details of Jesus’ biography. c140 Marcion of Pontus issued his Apostle (10 Paulines); Gospel (rejecting the bodily substance of Christ); and Antitheses (contrasting the evil creator-God of the Old Testament with the good God of the New Testament) in Rome. First Christian to produce a canon of Scripture – none of his writings have survived, and out of the possible nine works written to refute him, only one has survived (Tertullian, Against Marcion). c150 Carpocrates propagates his carnal form of Gnosticism (Irenaeus; Clement of Alexandria). c150 Valentinus the Gnostic – claimed that he had been taught by Theodas, a companion of the apostle Paul (Irenaeus, Tertullian). Succeeded in turn by Ptolemaeus (c160) and Heracleon (c170). c150 Egerton Papyrus 2– earliest extant non-canonical Gospel fragment (discovered in 1934). c150 “The Apostles in their memoirs, which are called Gospels, have handed down what Jesus ordered them to do…” – First Apology (chapter 66) by Justin Martyr: first Christian to quote material found in Matthew, Mark and Luke (although he did not name the Gospels nor state how many there were). Ignorant of John; possibly knew Acts (referred to Simon Magus); mentioned Revelation by name and author. c160 Tatian, one-time pupil of Justin – recognised material found in John. Combined material found in 4 Gospels into one continuous narrative, called the Diatessaron (“Through Four”) in c170. A 3rd-century 14-line Greek fragment was discovered in 1920 at Dura-Europos (recognised in 1933). 161 – 169 Lucius Verus, Roman Emperor. 161 – 180 Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor. * The period of time between Augustus and Marcus Aurelius is commonly known as the Pax Romana. c164 * M. Cornelius Fronto, a famous orator, influential senator and advisor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius – accused Christians of infanticide, cannibalism and incest (his speech preserved in fragmentary paraphrases in chapters 9 and 31 of Minucius Felix’s Octavius). * In his Meditations, xi.3 Marcus Aurelius wrote: “How admirable is the soul which is ready and resolved, if it must this moment be released from the body, to be either extinguished or scattered, or to persist. This resolve, too, must arise from a specific decision, not out of sheer opposition like the Christians, but after reflex ion and with dignity, and so as to convince others, without histrionic display”. c165 “The poor wretches have convinced themselves…that they are going to be immortal and live for all time…by worshipping that crucified sophist and living under his laws. Therefore, they despise the things of this world, and consider them common property. They receive these doctrines by tradition, without any definite evidence. So if any charlatan or trickster comes among them, he quickly acquires wealth by imposing upon these simple folk”. – On The Death Of Peregrini by Lucian of Samosata (c125-c190). c170 Octavius by Minucius Felix – recorded anti-Christian polemic: “Is it then not deplorable that an attack should be made upon the gods by a gang…of discredited and proscribed desperadoes? They have gathered together from the lowest dregs of the populace ignorant men and credulous women – and women are naturally unstable – and have formed a rabble of impious conspirators; at their nocturnal gatherings, solemn fasts, and barbarous meals the bond of union is not any sacred rite but crime. They are a secret tribe that lurks in darkness and shuns the light, silent in public, chattering in corners…” (attributed to Caecilius, chapter 8). c170 Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth – first to claim that Peter was Bishop of Rome (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Bk 2 ch 25). c175 Near-complete Gospel of John discovered during the 1950s (Bodmer Papyri P.66). 177 Christian martyrdoms at Lyons (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Bk 5 ch 1). c178 * “Societies which are public are allowed by the laws, but secret societies are illegal. Christians perform their rites and teach their doctrines in secret, they do this with good reason to escape the death penalty that hangs over them”. * “They worship to an extravagant degree this man who appeared recently. They are like frogs holding a symposium round a swamp, debating which of them is the most sinful”. * “…some Christians do not want to give or receive a reason for what they believe, and use such expressions as ‘Do not ask questions; just believe’ and ‘Your faith will save you’. The wisdom in the world is an evil thing and folly good”. * “Their injunctions are like this: ‘Let no one educated, no one wise, no one sensible draw near, for those abilities are taught by us to be evils. But as for ignorant, anyone stupid, anyone uneducated, anyone who is a child, let him come boldly’.” - Celsus, True Discourse (No longer extant, but quotations survive in Origen, Against Celsus). 180 – 192 Commodus, Roman Emperor. c180 “Most people are unable to follow any demonstrative argument consecutively; hence they need parables, and benefit from them” – and he (Galen) understands by parables tales of rewards and punishments in a future life – “just as now we see the people called Christians acting in the same way [as those who philosophise]. For their contempt of death [and of its sequel] is patent to us every day, and likewise their restraint in cohabitation. For they include not only men but also women who refrain from cohabitating all through their lives; control in matters of food and drink, and in their keen pursuit of justice, have attained a pitch not inferior to that of genuine philosophers”. – Arabic quotations of Galen’s (c129-c199) summary of Plato’s Republic. c180 Memoirs (5 Books) of Hegesippus (no longer extant) – an anti-Gnostic work giving an account of Christian history that was rejected by the Church, referring to the descendants of the brothers of the Saviour (Ecclesiastical History, Books 3 and 4). c180 Five Books Against Heresies by Irenaeus of Lyons (c130-c200). Coined the term ‘orthodoxy’ to try and unify Christian belief – first Christian to recognise Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke & John), Acts and I Peter by name. c190 Muratorian Fragment – oldest extant list of Christian sacred books, omitting James, I-II Peter, Hebrews, and an epistle of John. Written in barbarous Latin on MS dating from the 7th or 8th century (published by the Italian scholar L. A. Muratori in 1740). 193 Pertinax, Roman Emperor. 193 Didius Iulianus, Roman Emperor. 193 – 211 Septimus Severus (Lucius Septimus Severus), Roman Emperor. c200 Refutation of all Heresies by Hippolytus (c170-c236) – discovered at Mount Athos in 1851. Part of the work relating to the secrets of the Egyptians and Chaldean mysteries is missing, as is the summary of their contents in the Epitome, which otherwise is fully preserved. 202 Edict of Septimus Severus – forbidding conversion either to Judaism or Christianity. First co-ordinated worldwide persecution of the two religions (Spartianus, Vita Severi, xvii:1). 211 – 212 Geta, Roman Emperor. 211 – 217 Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus), Roman Emperor. c211 “And the Son of God died, which is immediately credible because it is absurd. And buried he rose again, which is certain because it is impossible”. – De Carne Christi v by Tertullian (c160-c225). 212 The Emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free inhabitants of the Roman world, rendering Christians vulnerable to a general persecution – the Constitutio Antoniniana (Ulpian, Digesta, I.v.17). It was during this period of time that the first buildings identifiable as Churches were constructed (Dura-Europos, Edessa, Cappadocia). c215 Mani born at Seleucia-Ctesiphon, capital of the Persian Empire (died c277). 217 – 218 Macrinus, Roman Emperor. 218 Diadumenian, Roman Emperor. 218 – 222 Heliogabalus (Varius Avitus Bassianus), Roman Emperor. 222 – 235 Alexander Severus, Roman Emperor. c225 Letter to Aristides by Sextus Julius Africanus (c180-c250) – referred to the “relatives of the Saviour according to the flesh” (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Bk 1 ch 7). His works are no longer extant. 235 – 238 Maximinus the Thracian, Roman Emperor. 238 Gordian I; Gordian II; Balbinus; Pupienus; Roman Emperors. 238 – 244 Gordian III, Roman Emperor. 244 – 249 Philip I, The Arabian, Roman Emperor. 247 – 249 Philip II, Roman Emperor. 249 – 251 Decius (Gaius Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius), Roman Emperor. 250 The Emperor “Trajan” (Decius) arrested senior members of the clergy; Pope Fabian executed (Epistles of Cyprian). c250 Against Celsus by Origen (c185-c254) – consulted the works of Flavius Josephus. Mentioned the account relating to John the Baptist, but was ignorant of Antiquities Bk 18:63-64. Also referred to a claim made by Josephus that does not exist in our surviving manuscripts – that the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple occurred as a punishment for the death of James the Just, brother of Jesus Christ. But Origen failed to provide a direct quotation (i:47). In Wars Bk 4:318-321 Josephus stated that it was the death of Ananus – who put James to death – which marked the beginning of the destruction of Jerusalem (describing Ananus as being just, venerable and having dignity). * Origen was the first Christian who belonged to what was to become the mainstream Church to compile a list of sacred books and to use the word “canon”. He omitted Acts, James and Jude (even though these were referred to in his other works), and regarded II-III John and Jude as spurious (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Bk 6 ch 25). c250 Four-Fifths of the Gospels of Luke and John (Bodmer Papyri P.75). c250 Fragments of Gospels, Acts, Revelation, near-complete Pauline Epistles (Chester Beatty Papyri, discovered during the 1930s). 251 Herennius Etruscus, Roman Emperor. 251 Hostilian, Roman Emperor. 251 – 253 Trebonianus Gallus, Roman Emperor. 251 – 253 Volusian, Roman Emperor. 253 Aemilianus, Roman Emperor. 253 – 260 Valerian, Roman Emperor. 253 – 268 Gallienus, Roman Emperor. 260 Saloninus, Roman Emperor. 268 – 270 Claudius II, Gothicus, Roman Emperor. 270 Quintillus, Roman Emperor. 270 – 275 Aurelian (Lucius Domitian Aurelianus), Roman Emperor. 275 – 276 Tacitus, Roman Emperor. 276 Florianus, Roman Emperor. 276 – 282 Probus, Roman Emperor. 282 – 283 Carus, Roman Emperor. 283 – 284 Numerianus, Roman Emperor. 283 – 285 Carinus, Roman Emperor. 284 – 305 Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus), Roman Emperor. * Ruling from Nicomedia instead of Rome, Diocletian re-organised the Empire, dividing it into two halves, introducing a new tax system, and separating military and civilian administration. He was the only Emperor ever to leave the throne voluntarily when he abdicated in 305, retiring to Yugoslavia. 286 – 305 Maximian, Roman Emperor. c290 Against The Christians (15 Books) by Porphyry of Tyre (c232-c304) – copies of it were ordered to be burnt by Constantine and Theodosius II. Fragments survive in the form of quotations. Surviving example: “Even supposing some Greeks are so foolish as to think that the gods dwell in the statues, even that would be a much purer concept (of religion) than to admit that the Divine Power should descend into the womb of the Virgin Mary, that it became an embryo, and after birth was wrapped in rags, soiled with blood and bile, and even worse”. (Fragment 77 contained in Adolf von Harnack, 1916). 293 The Tetrarchy – Diocletian and Maximian are Augusti; Constantius and Galerius, Caesars. c298 Diocletian began to purge the Civil Service and Army of Christians. Full-scale attack began in 303 – destruction of church buildings, surrender of the scriptures, and performance by the clergy of acts of sacrifice; but Christians by this period of time had become far too numerous (Eusebius, Martyrs of Palestine; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum) 305 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Constantius and Galerius Augusti; Severus and Maximus Caesars. 305 – 306 Constantius I, Roman Emperor 305 – 311 Galerius, Roman Emperor. 306 –307 Severus, Roman Emperor. c306 Council of Elvira – declared that higher clergy must remain celibate. 306 Constantine I (Flavius Valerius Constantinus) hailed as Augustus by his army, recognised as Caesar (Coup d’etat of Maxentius, son of Maximian). 307 – 312 Maxentius, Roman Emperor. 307 – 337 Constantine I, Roman Emperor. 308 – 324 Licinius, Roman Emperor. 310 Death of Maximian. 310 – 313 Maximinus II, Roman Emperor. 311 Death of Galerius. 312 Constantine invaded Italy and defeated his rival Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge; 28 October. Christianity set to become the sole religion of the Roman Empire, to the exclusion and suppression of all others (unsuccessful against Judaism). Helena, Constantine’s mother, was a Christian. 313 Edict of Milan by Constantine and Licinius – all religions to be treated equally (Licinius was eventually ordered to be put to death by Constantine in 324). 313 Licinius defeats Maximinus. 316-317 Valerius Valens, Roman Emperor. 324 Martinian, Roman Emperor. c324 Demonstration of the Gospel by Eusebius of Caesarea (c260-c340) – first Christian reference to Antiquities Bk 18:63-64 in Josephus (iii.5.105). 324 – 330 Foundation and building of Constantinople (former Byzantium, present day Istanbul), replacing Nicomedia as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and becoming the new capital of the whole Empire, which Constantine reunited. 325 Council of Nicaea – Council of 300 bishops meet to try and resolve differences over doctrine, and to establish uniformity of belief within Christianity. Arius (c250-c336), who denied that the Son was cognate with the Father (the conflict between homoousia and homoiousia), was defeated and banished to Illyricum. Celibacy for the clergy was rejected. c312 – 330 Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History Bk 3 ch 25 – regarded James, Jude, II Peter and II-III John as spurious in his list of sacred books. 335 Nominal division of the Empire between Constantine’s sons and nephews. 337 Baptism and death of Constantine. 337 – 340 Constantine II; Constans, Roman Emperors. 340 – 361 Constantius II, Roman Emperor. c347 Firmicus Maternus, On The Error of Profane Religions – a refutation of paganism. 350 – 353 Magnentius, Roman Emperor. c350-385 Greek Codex Sinaiticus – earliest near-complete New Testament text (discovered in 1844). 360 – 363 Julian (Flavius Claudius Julianus: called “the Apostate”), Roman Emperor. 361 – 363 Julian’s short-lived attempt to restore paganism, reversing the Edict of Milan and re-opening the pagan temples. Authored Adversos Christianos – quotations survive in Cyril of Alexandria’s Contra Julianum. 363 – 364 Jovian, Roman Emperor. 364 – 375 Valentinian I, Roman Emperor. 364 – 378 Valens, Roman Emperor. c369 39th Festal Epistle of Athanasius – earliest extant witness to the present New Testament. 375 – 383 Gratian, Valentinian II, Roman Emperors. c375 Panarion haer (“Breadbasket of Heresies”) by Epiphanius of Salamis (c315-c403), describing around eighty heresies, comparing each one with a species of snake. 378 Roman army defeated at the Battle of Adrianople (Turkey), fought between Valens (Roman Emperor of the East 364 – 378) and the Visigoths. * St Ambrose described the Roman defeat as “the end of all humanity, the end of the world”. 379 – 395 Theodosius I, the Great, Roman Emperor. 380 Christianity declared sole religion of the Roman Empire by Theodosius I – making Christianity the official religion in Greece, outlawing the worship of Greek gods. Christianity establishes a hierarchy composed of priests, bishops and patriarchs. Theodosius formally divided the Empire into a Western and Eastern half. 382 Theodosius I negotiates a Treaty with the Visigoths, allowing them to become the first barbarian nation within the Roman Empire. c382 Council held at Rome under Pope Damasus possibly gave a complete list of the canonical books of both the Old Testament and the New Testament. Following a request made by the Pope, Jerome revised the existing Latin versions, correcting them with the aid of Greek codices then reputed ancient and trustworthy. Jerome’s new translations became the basis for the future Vulgate. 383 – 388 Maximus, Roman Emperor. 386 Decretal of Pope Siricius ordering celibacy within the clergy. 387 – 388 Victor, Roman Emperor. 391 Christian fanatics destroy the Library of Alexandria (Eunapius, Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists; Sozomenus, Ecclesiastical History, vii:15). 392 – 394 Eugenius, Roman Emperor. 394 Visigoths allied with Rome against the Huns. 395 – 423 Honorius, Western Roman Emperor. 395 Visigoths relinquished their allegiance with Rome. c397 The term “Original Sin” first used by Augustine of Hippo (c354-c430) in Quaestiones ad Simplicianum (cf. Romans xiii:12-14). 401 Visigoths invade Italy, but were defeated and forced to withdraw from Italy. 410 Sacking of Rome by Alaric the Visigoth. 421 Constantius III, Western Roman Emperor. 423 – 425 John, Western Roman Emperor. 425 – 455 Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor. 438 Theodosius II (Roman Emperor of the East 408-450) introduced legislation banning paganism and penalizing heresy – The Theodosian Code, Book 16. 439 Genseric the Vandal occupies Carthage, establishing it as his capital. 445 Valentinian III decrees that all Western bishops have to be under the jurisdiction of the Pope. 451 Council of Chalcedon finally proclaimed that Jesus Christ had been fully human and fully divine – agreed upon by both Eastern and Western Bishops by a vote. 455 Petronius Maximus, Western Roman Emperor. 455 Carthage and Rome conquered by the Vandals, led by Genseric. 455 – 456 Avitus, Western Roman Emperor. 457 – 461 Marjorian, Western Roman Emperor. 461 – 465 Libius Severus, Western Roman Emperor. 467 – 472 Anthemius, Western Roman Emperor. 472 Olybrius, Western Roman Emperor. 473 – 474 Glycerius, Western Roman Emperor. 474 – 475 Julius Nepos, Western Roman Emperor. 474 Theodoric The Great becomes king of the Ostrogoths. 475 – 476 Romulus Augustulus, Western Roman Emperor. 476 Rome falls to the Ostrogoths, led by Odovacar, who assumes the title king of Rome – Romulus Augustulus deposed, the last Roman Emperor of the Western Empire, with Constantinople becoming the sole capital of the Roman Empire. 493 –526 Theodoric the Great, Arian Gothic Emperor of Rome, assumes control over Italy. c496 Baptism of Clovis I, king of the Franks, by St Remy on Christmas Day. Christianity officially introduced into Europe. 527 – 565 Justinian I, Eastern Roman Emperor. According to the historian Procopius of Caesarea, Justinian I returned the treasure of the Jews seized by Titus in AD 70 to the “sanctuaries of the Christians in Jerusalem” (History of the Wars iv.ix.9-10). Elsewhere he had also written that the Germanic tribes had “laid siege to Carcassonne with great enthusiasm, because they had learned that the royal treasure was there, which Alaric the elder in earlier times had taken as booty when he captured Rome. Among these were also the treasures of Solomon, the king of the Hebrews, a most noteworthy sight. For the most of them were adorned with emeralds, and they had been taken from Jerusalem by the Romans in ancient times” (History of the Wars v.xii.41-43). * Gregory of Tours, in History of the Franks, Book II: 37 wrote: “When Clovis had spent the winter in Bordeaux and taken all the treasures of Alaric at Toulouse, he went to Angoulême” – stating that the Treasure was taken by the Merovingians. 529 Justinian I prohibited the teaching of Classical philosophy in Athens. Built the church of Hagia Sophia (“Divine Wisdom”) in Constantinople. 533 – 534 Belisarius overthrew the Vandals from Carthage – part of the attempt by Justinian I to try and restore the Western Roman Empire. 562 First unambiguous reference to a collection of Biblical books within one cover in Cassiodorus, Institutiones Divinarum Et Saecularium Litteranum, I.xiii.3. 568 Lombards invade Italy, which becomes fragmented into three regions of rule claimed by the Lombards, the Eastern Roman Empire and the Papal States. 637 Muslims conquer Jerusalem, building the Dome of the Rock in 691. c695 Codex Amiatinus – earliest extant complete Vulgate MS. 697 Capture and destruction of Carthage by the Arabs. 800 Charlemagne (Carolus Magnus, Charles the Great, Carolingian king of the Franks 768-814) crowned as Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III – first Emperor of Rome with his capital situated at Aachen (subsequently known as the Holy Roman Empire from 983 until its dissolution in 1806; the Holy Roman Emperors also holding the title King of Italy from 951). * When Popes supported the Holy Roman Empire rather than the Eastern Roman Empire, a schism was created between the Western church (Roman) and the Eastern church (Orthodox). Disputes arose over Papal authority. 1054 Roman and Orthodox churches, through their official representatives, excommunicated and anathematised each other. 1095 Alexius I Comnenus (Eastern Roman Emperor 1081-1118) approached Pope Urban II for help against barbarian invasions – this led to the First Crusade, which the Pope hoped would save the Empire from the Seljuk Turks. 1099 Crusaders take Jerusalem, massacring its inhabitants, establishing a kingdom there under Godfrey of Bouillon (who did not accept the title of king, calling himself Defender of the Holy Sepulchre). 1187 Saladin conquers Jerusalem, provoking the Third Crusade (1189-1192). c1200 Bible divided into chapters (Stephen Langton). 1204 Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople, establishing a Latin (Western) Empire there until 1261. 1215 Lateran Council declared the Doctrine of Transubstantiation. 1244 Massacre of the Albigensians (Cathars) at Montségur in Languedoc, a powerful heresy that subscribed to a dualism similar to Marcionism. 1453 Ottoman Turks led by Mehmet II capture Constantinople – collapse of the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantine XI Palaeologus the last Eastern Roman Emperor. 1516 Ottoman Turks conquer Jerusalem. 1517 Martin Luther, Professor of Biblical Exegesis at the University of Wittenberg in Germany, openly criticises the Papacy – leading to the Protestant Reformation, resulting in multitudinous differing factions being created within Christianity over the next few centuries. 1546 Fourth Council of Trent – final pronouncement of authentic books of the Bible. Also ruled that all baptisms should be registered. 1557 Bible divided into numbered verses (Robert Stephanus). 1856 Discovery of the earliest-known depiction of the Crucifixion at the Domus Gelotiana, Palatine Hill, Rome – a Third-century graffito showing Christ with the head of an Ass, above the inscription “Alexaminos worships his god”. * Tacitus claimed that the Holy of Holies in the Jerusalem Temple contained the image of an Ass, which the Jews worshipped on account of it leading them to water when in the wilderness during the Exodus (The Histories, v.4). 1873 Discovery of the Didache, or Teaching of the 12 Apostles, by Philotheos Bryennios, then Metropolitan of Nicomedia, in the library in Constantinople belonging to the Patriarch of Jerusalem – written on MS dating from 1056 (probably originally dating from the 2nd-century). First published in 1883. 1886 – 1887 Docetic Gospel of Peter discovered by a French archaeological expedition digging in Christian graves in Akhmim in Upper Egypt, dating from the Eighth-Ninth century (referred to in the 2nd-century by Serapion, Bishop of Antioch; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Bk 6 ch 12). 1897 Oxyrhynchus fragments discovered by Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt (parts of the Gospel of Thomas, c200). 1917 British take over Jerusalem and hold it under the Palestine Mandate from 1922 to 1948. 1945 Nag Hammadi Codices (c4th-century) discovered near Chenoboskion, Egypt – 12 leather-bound volumes (and fragments of a Thirteenth) containing 52 separate tracts. The survival of Gnostic writings, demonstrating the diverse nature of early Christianity. 1947 Discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in caves by the ruins of Khirbet Qumran. Jewish religious texts demonstrating the diverse nature of Judaism prior to, and during, the Christian era without actually referring to Christianity. 1948 State of Israel declared: Jerusalem being divided between Israel and Jordan. 1950 Jerusalem becomes the capital of Israel. 1967 Six Day War – the Arab sector of Jerusalem taken over by Israel. ADDENDUMAncient Fragment“What advantages did the Athenians gain for putting Socrates to death? Famine and plague came upon them as a judgment for their crime. What advantage did the men of Samos gain from burning Pythagoras? In a moment their land was covered in sand. What advantages did the Jews gain from executing their King? It was just after that that their kingdom was abolished. God justly avenged these three wise men – the Athenians died of hunger; the Samians were overwhelmed by the sea; the Jews, ruined and driven from their land, live in complete dispersion. But Socrates did not die for good; He lived on the teaching of Plato. Pythagoras did not die for good; He lived on in the statue of Hera. Nor did the wise King die for good; He lived on in the teaching which he had given”. – Mara bar Serapion; BM Syriac MS, additional 14,658, seventh century: letter itself possibly originally dating from the second or third century. priory-of-sion.com |